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Windows Vista

Tombartal — Tue, 01 Nov 2011 11:56:25 GMT

Tombartal: /* Service packs */

__NOTOC__
[[Image:Windows_Vista.png|thumb|left|Screenshot of Windows Vista Ultimate]]
'''Windows Vista''' is an [[operating system]] released in several variations developed by Microsoft for use on personal computers, including home and business desktops, laptops, tablet PCs, and media center PCs.

'''See also:''' ''using the computer and managing files with'' [[using Microsoft Windows Vista|Microsoft Windows Vista]].

Prior to its announcement on July 22, 2005, Windows Vista was known by its codename "''Longhorn''". Development was completed on November 8, 2006; over the following three months it was released in stages to computer hardware and software manufacturers, business customers, and retail channels. On January 30, 2007, it was released worldwide.

The release of Windows Vista came more than five years after the introduction of its predecessor, [[Windows XP]], the longest time span between successive releases of [[Microsoft Windows]] desktop operating systems. It was succeeded by [[Windows 7]], which was released to manufacturing on July 22, 2009, and for the general public on October 22, 2009.

==New and changed features==
;Windows Aero
: The new hardware-based graphical user interface is named Windows Aero. Microsoft intended the new interface to be cleaner and more aesthetically pleasing than those of previous Windows versions, including new transparencies, live thumbnails, live icons, and animations, thus providing a new level of eye candy.
;Desktop and Explorer
:The new Windows desktop environment differs significantly from the shell in Windows XP, offering a new range of organization, navigation, and search capabilities. Windows Explorer's task pane has been removed, integrating the relevant task options into the toolbar. A "Favorite links" pane has been added, enabling one-click access to common directories. The address bar has been replaced with a breadcrumb navigation system. The preview pane allows users to see thumbnails of various files and view the contents of documents. The details pane shows information such as file size and type, and allows viewing and editing of embedded tags in supported file formats. The Start menu has changed as well; it no longer uses ever-expanding boxes when navigating through Programs. The word "Start" itself has been removed in favor of a blue Windows Pearl.
;Instant search
:Windows Vista features a new way of searching called Instant Search, which is significantly faster and more in-depth (content-based) than the search features found in any of the previous versions of Windows.
;Windows Sidebar
:A transparent panel anchored to the side of the screen where a user can place desktop gadgets, small applications designed for a specialized purpose (such as displaying the weather, news or sports scores).
;Windows Internet Explorer 7
:The new version of the Internet Explorer web browser family comes with a new user interface, tabbed browsing, RSS, a search box, improved printing, Page Zoom, Quick Tabs (thumbnails of all open tabs), Anti-Phishing filter and a number of other security protection features.
;Windows Mail: A replacement for Outlook Express that includes a new mail store that improves stability, and features integrated Instant Search.
;Windows Media Player 11
:A major revamp of Microsoft's program for playing and organizing music and video. New features in this version include incremental search, a new media library, photo display and organization, the ability to share music libraries over a network with other Windows Vista machines, Xbox 360 integration, and support for other Media Center devices.
;Backup and Restore Center
:Includes a backup and restore application that gives users the ability to schedule periodic backups of files on their computer, as well as recovery from previous backups. Backups are incremental, storing only the changes each time, minimizing disk usage.
;Shadow Copy
:automatically creates daily backup copies of files and folders. Users can also create "shadow copies" by setting a System Protection Point using the System Protection tab in the System control panel. The user can be presented multiple versions of a file throughout a limited history and be allowed to restore, delete, or copy those versions. This feature is available only in the Business, Enterprise, and Ultimate editions of Windows Vista.
;Windows Ultimate Extras
:The Ultimate edition of Windows Vista provides, via Windows Update, access to some additional features. These are a collection of additional language packs, games, file and drive encryption enhancements and Windows Dreamscene, which enables the use of videos as the desktop background.
;ReadyBoost and ReadyDrive
:Vista includes technologies which employ fast flash memory (located on USB drives and hybrid hard disk drives) to improve system performance by caching commonly used programs and data.
;IPv6
:As part of the redesign of the networking architecture, IPv6 has been fully incorporated into the operating system and a number of performance improvements have been introduced.
;Graphics
:For graphics, Vista introduces a new Windows Display Driver Model and a major revision to Direct3D. Direct3D 10, developed in conjunction with major graphics card manufacturers, is a new architecture with more advanced shader support, and allows the graphics processing unit to render more complex scenes without assistance from the CPU.
;User Account Control
:Improved security was a primary design goal for Vista. UAC is perhaps the most significant and visible of these changes. In Windows Vista, when an action is performed that requires administrative rights (such as installing/uninstalling software or making system-wide configuration changes), the user is first prompted for an administrator name and password. In cases where the user is already an administrator, the user is still prompted to confirm the pending privileged action. Regular use of the computer such as running programs, printing, or surfing the Internet does not trigger UAC prompts.

==Removed features==
Some notable Windows XP features and components have been replaced or removed in Windows Vista, including several shell and Windows Explorer features, multimedia features, networking related functionality, Windows Messenger, NTBackup, the network Messenger Service, HyperTerminal, MSN Explorer, Active Desktop, and NetMeeting has been replaced with Windows Meeting Space.

Windows Vista also does not include the Windows XP "Luna" visual theme, or most of the classic color schemes which have been part of Windows since the Windows 3.x era.

==Editions==
Windows Vista shipped in six different editions. These are roughly divided into two target markets, consumer and business, with editions varying to cater for specific sub-markets. For consumers, there are four editions, with three available for economically more developed countries. In the European Union, N-versions are also available. These come without Windows Media Player, due to EU sanctions brought against Microsoft for violating anti-trust laws. Similar sanctions exist in South Korea (KN-versions).

;Windows Vista Starter
:Much like its predecessor, Windows XP Starter Edition, this edition sells in 139 countries such as Russia, Brazil, China, Indonesia, Mexico, etc. Microsoft does not make Starter edition available in developed markets. Vista Starter has significant limitations, such as allowing a maximum of three applications with a user interface at once, not accepting incoming network connections, a watermark in the corner of the screen, and a physical memory limit of 1 GB. It supports cheaper and older CPUs (like AMD's Athlon XP, Duron, Sempron and Geode processors, and Intel's Celeron, Pentium III processors and certain models of Pentium 4) and the usable portion of the hard disk has a limit of 250 GB.
;Windows Vista Home Basic
:Similar to Windows XP Home Edition, Vista Home Basic targets budget-conscious users not requiring advanced media support for home use. This edition lacks the Windows Aero theme with its translucent effects.
;Windows Vista Home Premium
:Containing all features from Home Basic, this edition also supports additional features aimed for the home market segment, such as support for high definition television and DVD-authoring. It also includes games, support for mobile and tablet PCs, network projectors, touchscreens, auxiliary displays, and a utility to schedule backups.
;Windows Vista Business
:Comparable to Windows XP Professional, Windows Vista Business Edition targets the business market. It includes all the features of Home Basic with the exception of Parental Controls and the Windows Vista Standard theme. This edition can join and participate in a Windows Server domain. It includes Internet Information Services, fax support, Rights Management Services client, Encrypting File System, system image backup and recovery, Offline Files, a single user Remote Desktop server, ad-hoc P2P collaboration capabilities, Shadow Copy support which provides access to previous versions of files, support for Tablet PCs, and other business oriented management features.
;Windows Vista Enterprise
:This edition targeted the enterprise market: it comprises a superset of the Vista Business edition. Additional features include support for Multilingual User Interface (MUI) packages, BitLocker Drive Encryption, and UNIX application-support. Not available through retail or OEM channels, this edition was distributed through Microsoft Software Assurance.
;Windows Vista Ultimate
:Windows Vista Ultimate combines all the features of the Home Premium and Enterprise editions, plus "Ultimate Extras".

To support 64-bit platforms such as Intel Xeon, Intel Core 2, AMD Opteron and AMD Athlon 64, Microsoft released 64-bit versions of every edition of Windows Vista except for the Starter edition.

==Hardware requirements==
Microsoft has published the [http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/press/2006/may06/05-18GetReadyPR.mspx minimum requirements] for systems running Windows Vista. Computers capable of running Windows Vista are classified as ''Vista Capable'' and ''Vista Premium Ready''. A Vista Capable or equivalent PC is capable of running all editions of Windows Vista although some of the special features and high-end graphics options may require additional or more advanced hardware. A Vista Premium Ready PC can take advantage of Vista's high-end features.

==Service packs==
;Service Pack 1
:Windows Vista Service Pack 1 (SP1) was released on February 4, 2008 with three major areas of improvement: reliability and performance, administration experience, and support for newer hardware and standards. Service Pack 1 introduced support for some new hardware and software standards, notably the exFAT file system, 802.11n wireless networking, IPv6 over VPN connections, and the Secure Socket Tunneling Protocol. Booting a system using Extensible Firmware Interface on x64 systems was also introduced; this feature had originally been slated for the initial release of Vista but was delayed due to a lack of compatible hardware at the time. SP1 enables support for hotpatching, a reboot-reduction servicing technology designed to maximize uptime. It works by allowing Windows components to be updated (or "patched") while they are still in use by a running process.
;Service Pack 2
:Service Pack 2 for Windows Vista was released to manufacturing on April 28, 2009, and released to Microsoft Download Center and Windows Update on May 26, 2009. In addition to a number of security and other fixes, a number of new features have been added: Windows Search 4.0, support for Bluetooth 2.1, data recording onto [[Blu-ray]] media, Wi-Fi enhancements, improved audio and video performance for streaming high-definition content and a more efficient power management policy.
;Platform Update
:The Platform Update for Windows Vista was released on October 27, 2009. It includes major new components that shipped with Windows 7. Although extensive, the Platform Update does not bring Windows Vista to the level of features and performance offered by Windows 7.

Windows 7

Tombartal — Sat, 29 Oct 2011 14:34:36 GMT

Tombartal: /* Service packs */

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[[Image:Windows7.png|thumb|left|Screenshot of Windows 7 Ultimate]] '''Windows 7''' is the latest release of [[Microsoft Windows]], a series of [[operating system]]s produced by Microsoft for use on [[personal computer]]s, including home and business desktops, laptops, netbooks, [[tablet]] PCs, and media center PCs.

'''See also:''' ''using the computer and managing files with'' [[using Microsoft Windows 7|Microsoft Windows 7]].

Windows 7 was released to manufacturing on July 22, 2009, and reached general retail availability on October 22, 2009, less than three years after the release of its predecessor, [[Windows Vista]].

Unlike Windows Vista, which introduced a large number of new features, Windows 7 was intended to be a more focused, incremental upgrade to the Windows line, with the goal of being compatible with applications and hardware with which Windows Vista was already compatible. Some standard applications that have been included with prior releases of Microsoft Windows, including Windows Calendar, Windows Mail, Windows Movie Maker, and Windows Photo Gallery, are not included in Windows 7; most are instead offered separately at no charge as part of the ''Windows Live Essentials'' suite.

==New and changed features==
Some of the new features included in Windows 7 are advancements in [[touchscreen|touch]], speech, and handwriting recognition, support for virtual [[hard disk drive|hard disks]], support for additional file formats, improved performance on multi-core [[Central Processing Unit|processors]], improved boot performance, and kernel improvements.
;Desktop
:Windows 7 retains the ''Windows Aero'' user interface and visual style introduced with its predecessor, [[Windows Vista]], but many areas have seen enhancements. Support for '''themes''' has been extended in Windows 7. In addition to setting the colors of the window chrome, desktop background, desktop icons, mouse pointers and sound schemes, themes in Windows 7 include desktop slideshow settings. Windows 7 includes a '''desktop slideshow''' that changes the desktop background in a designated amount of time with a smooth fading transition. Windows Vista introduced '''gadgets''' and a sidebar which provides the ability to anchor gadgets to the side of the user's desktop. In Windows 7, the sidebar has been removed, while gadgets can still be placed on the desktop. OEMs and enterprises are able to add '''branding and customization''' to the logon screen wallpaper of Windows 7 that is displayed before a user logs on.
;Windows Explorer
:Windows Explorer in Windows 7 supports file that aggregates content from various locations - including shared folders on networked systems if the shared folder has been indexed by the host system - and presents them in a unified view. These '''file libraries''' hide the actual location the file is stored in. By default, a new user account in Windows 7 contains four libraries for different file types: ''Documents'', ''Music'', ''Pictures'', and ''Videos''. In addition to aggregating multiple storage locations, Libraries enable ''Arrangement Views'' (allowing views of the library's contents based on metadata, for example "By Month") and ''Search Filter Suggestions'' (a list of recent searches and advanced search filters below the search box).
;Start menu
:The start orb now has a fade-in highlight effect when the user moves the mouse over it. The Start menu retains the two-column layout of its predecessors, with several functional changes. The "''Documents''", "''Pictures''" and "''Music''" buttons now link to the Libraries of the same name. A "''Devices and Printers''" option has been added that displays a new device manager. The "''shut down''" icon in Windows Vista has been replaced with a text link.
;Taskbar
:The Windows Taskbar has seen its most significant revision since its introduction in Windows 95. The taskbar is 10 pixels taller than in Windows Vista to accommodate touch screen input and a new larger default icon size. Running applications are denoted by a border frame around the icon. Within this border, a color effect also indicates the opened status of the application.
[[Image:Windows_7_Taskbar.png|thumb|650px|center|The Windows 7 taskbar.]]
:The ''Quick Launch toolbar'' has been removed from default configuration. '''Thumbnail previews''' which were introduced in Windows Vista have been expanded to not only preview the windows opened by the application in a small-sized thumbnail view, but to also interact with them.
;Aero Peek
:[[Image:Aero_Peek.png|thumb|right|Windows 7 desktop displayed through Peek.]]In past versions of Windows, the taskbar ended with the notification area on the right side. However, there is now the Aero Peek button, which, when clicked or hovered over with the mouse, displays the desktop and gadgets by turning all windows transparent. This replaces the Show Desktop shortcut in the Quick Launch bar in previous versions of Windows.
;Window management mouse gestures
:With '''Aero Snap''' windows can be dragged to the top of the screen to maximize them and dragged away to restore them. Dragging a window to the left or right of the screen makes it take up half the screen allowing the user to tile two windows next to each other. Also resizing the window to the bottom of the screen or top will extend the window full but retain the width of the window. '''Aero Shake''' allows users to clear up any clutter on their screen by shaking (dragging back and forth) a window of their choice with the mouse. All other windows will minimize, while the window the user shook stays active on the screen.
;Font management
:The user interface for font management has been overhauled. As with Windows Vista, the collection of installed fonts is shown in a Windows Explorer window, but fonts from the same font family appear as "stacks" instead of as individual icons. A user can then double-click on the font stack and see the individual font.
;Devices
:There are two major new user interface components for device management in Windows 7, "''Devices and Printers''" and "''Device Stage''". Both of these are integrated with Windows Explorer, and together provide a simplified view of what devices are connected to the computer, and what capabilities they support.
;Graphics
:DirectX 11 is included with Windows 7.
;Virtual hard disks
:The Enterprise, Ultimate, and Professional editions of Windows 7 incorporate support for the Virtual Hard Disk (VHD) file format. VHD files can be mounted as drives, an installed version of Windows 7 can be booted and run from a VHD drive, even on non-virtual hardware, thereby providing a new way to multi boot Windows.
;Multimedia
:Windows Media Center in Windows 7 has retained much of the design and feel of its predecessor, but with a variety of user interface shortcuts and browsing capabilities. Windows 7 also contains a media source to read MPEG, MPEG-2, MPEG-4 formats, which includes decoding popular codec implementations such as DivX, Xvid and Nero Digital. ''Windows Media Player 12'' uses the built-in Media Foundation codecs to play these formats by default.
;Security
:The Windows Security Center, which encompasses both security and maintenance of the computer, has been renamed ''Windows Action Center''. Windows 7 includes support for standard fingerprint biometric devices. Multiple firewall profiles ar also supported, to apply to each network connection if the computer is connected to more than one network at the same time (as for a computer with both an Ethernet and a wireless interface).

==Removed features==
Certain capabilities and programs that were a part of Windows Vista are no longer present or have been changed, resulting in the removal of certain functionalities. These include the classic Start Menu user interface, some taskbar features, Windows Explorer features, Windows Media Player features, Windows Ultimate Extras and InkBall. Four applications bundled with Windows Vista — Windows Photo Gallery, Windows Movie Maker, Windows Calendar and Windows Mail — are not included with Windows 7, but applications with close functionality are instead available for free in a separate package called Windows Live Essentials which can be downloaded on the Microsoft website.

==Editions==
Windows 7 is available in six different editions, but only the Home Premium, Professional, and Ultimate editions are available for retail sale to consumers in most countries.
;Windows 7 Starter
:This edition is available pre-installed on computers, especially netbooks, through system integrators or computer manufacturers. Windows 7 Starter is the edition of Windows 7 that contains the fewest features. Windows 7 Starter is only available in a 32-bit version. The Windows Aero theme is not included, and the desktop wallpaper and Visual Styles (Windows 7 Basic) are not user-changeable.
;Windows 7 Home Basic
:Windows 7 Home Basic is available in "emerging markets", in 141 different countries. Some Windows Aero options are excluded along with several new features. Home Basic, along with other editions sold in emerging markets, include geographical activation restriction, which requires users to activate Windows within a certain region or country.
;Windows 7 Home Premium
:This edition contains features aimed at the home market segment, such as Windows Media Center, Windows Aero and multi-touch support.
;Windows 7 Professional
:This edition is targeted towards enthusiasts and small-business users. It includes all the features of Windows 7 Home Premium, and adds the ability to participate in a Windows Server domain. Additional features include operating as a Remote Desktop server, location aware printing, Encrypting File System, Presentation Mode, Software Restriction Policies (but not the extra management features of AppLocker) and Windows XP Mode. Like Enterprise, Microsoft will support this edition until 2020.
;Windows 7 Enterprise
:This edition targets the enterprise segment of the market and is sold through volume licensing. Additional features include support for Multilingual User Interface (MUI) packages, BitLocker Drive Encryption, and UNIX application support.
;Windows 7 Ultimate
:Windows 7 Ultimate contains all of the same features as Windows 7 Enterprise, but unlike the Enterprise edition, it is available to home users on an individual license basis. Windows 7 Home Premium and Windows 7 Professional users are able to upgrade to Windows 7 Ultimate for a fee using Windows Anytime Upgrade if they wish to do so.
;N and KN editions
:The features in the N and KN Editions are the same as their equivalent full versions, but do not include Windows Media Player or other Windows Media-related technologies, such as Windows Media Center and Windows DVD Maker.
;VL builds
:VL builds work with volume license keys whoch can be used to activate multiple installations of the software without any mechanism (such as a product activation mechanism) checking the total number of installations.

==Hardware requirements==
Microsoft has published the [http://windows.microsoft.com/en-us/windows7/products/system-requirements minimum specifications] for a system to run Windows 7. Requirements for the 32-bit version are similar to that of premium editions of Vista, but are higher for 64-bit versions. Microsoft has released an upgrade advisor that determines if a computer is compatible with Windows 7.

==Service packs==
Windows 7 '''Service Pack 1''' (SP1) was announced on March 18, 2010 and released to the public on February 9, 2011. It contains bug fixes, adds support for Advanced Vector Extensions (AVX), a 256-bit instruction set extension for processors, and improves the IKEv2 security protocol suite and other security features.

Operating system

Tombartal — Mon, 17 Oct 2011 19:23:57 GMT

Tombartal: intro: name some common operating systems.

__NOTOC__
An '''operating system''' (OS) is a set of programs that manage computer [[hardware]] resources, and provides common services for application software. The operating system is the most important type of system software in a computer system. In most cases, without an operating system, users cannot run application programs on their [[personal computer|computer]]. Common operating systems today include ''Microsoft Windows'', ''Linux'' and ''Mac OS X'' on desktop computers; ''iOS'', ''Android'' and ''Windows Mobile'' on [[tablet]] computers and [[smartphone]]s.

Early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Operating systems did not exist in their modern and more complex forms until the early 1960s. In the 1940s, the earliest electronic digital systems had no operating systems. Electronic systems of this time were so primitive compared to those of today that instructions were often entered into the system one bit at a time on rows of mechanical switches or by jumper wires on plug boards. These were special-purpose systems that, for example, generated ballistics tables for the military or controlled the printing of payroll checks from data on punched paper cards. After programmable general purpose computers were invented, machine languages (consisting of strings of the binary digits 0 and 1 on punched paper tape) were introduced that speed up the programming process.

In the early 1950s, a computer could execute only one program at a time. Each user had sole use of the computer for a limited period of time and would arrive at a scheduled time with program and data on punched paper cards and/or punched tape. The program would be loaded into the machine, and the machine would be set to work until the program completed or crashed. Programs could generally be debugged via a front panel using toggle switches and panel lights. Some operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as monitor programs that could automatically run different application programs in succession to speed up processing. Hardware features were added that enabled use of runtime libraries, interrupts, and parallel processing. Through the 1950s, many major features were pioneered in the field of operating systems, including batch processing, input/output interrupt, buffering, multitasking, spooling, runtime libraries, link-loading, and programs for sorting records in files.

When personal computers by companies such as Apple Inc., Atari, IBM and Amiga became popular in the 1980s, vendors added operating system features that had previously become widely used on mainframe and mini computers. Later, many features such as graphical user interface were developed specifically for personal computer operating systems.

An operating system consists of many parts. One of the most important components is the kernel, which controls low-level processes that the average user usually cannot see: it controls how memory is read and written, the order in which processes are executed, how information is received and sent by devices like the monitor, keyboard and mouse, and decides how to interpret information received from networks. The user interface is a component that interacts with the computer user directly, allowing them to control and use programs. The user interface may be graphical with icons and a desktop, or textual, with a command line. Application programming interfaces provide services and code libraries that let applications developers write modular code reusing well defined programming sequences in user space libraries or in the operating system itself. Which features are considered part of the operating system is defined differently in various operating systems. For example, Microsoft Windows considers its user interface to be part of the operating system, while many versions of Linux do not.

==Types==
;Real-time
:A real-time operating system is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time applications. Real-time operating systems often use specialized scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve a deterministic nature of behavior. The main objective of real-time operating systems is their quick and predictable response to events. They have an event-driven or time-sharing design and often aspects of both. An event-driven system switches between tasks based on their priorities or external events while time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts.

;Multi-user vs. Single-user
:A multi-user operating system allows multiple users to access a computer system concurrently. Time-sharing system can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable a multiple user access to a computer through the sharing of time. Single-user operating systems, as opposed to a multi-user operating system, are usable by a single user at a time. Being able to have multiple accounts on a Windows operating system does not make it a multi-user system. Rather, only the network administrator is the real user. But for a Unix-like operating system, it is possible for two users to login at a time and this capability of the OS makes it a multi-user operating system.

;Multi-tasking vs. Single-tasking
:When only a single program is allowed to run at a time, the system is grouped under a single-tasking system. However, when the operating system allows the execution of multiple tasks at one time, it is classified as a multi-tasking operating system. Multi-tasking can be of two types: pre-emptive or co-operative. In pre-emptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates one slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems such as Solaris and Linux support pre-emptive multitasking. Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to give time to the other processes in a defined manner. Microsoft Windows prior to Windows 2000 used to support cooperative multitasking.

;Distributed
:A distributed operating system manages a group of independent computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other, gave rise to distributed computing. Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a group work in cooperation, they make a distributed system.

;Embedded
:Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate in industrial environments, or on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design. Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems.

==Examples of operating systems==
===Unix and Unix-like operating systems===
The ''Unix-like'' family is a diverse group of operating systems, with several major sub-categories including System V, BSD, and GNU/Linux. The name "UNIX" is a trademark of The Open Group which licenses it for use with any operating system that has been shown to conform to their definitions. "Unix-like" is commonly used to refer to the large set of operating systems which resemble the original Unix. Four operating systems are certified by the The Open Group as Unix. HP's '''HP-UX''' and IBM's '''AIX''' are designed to run only on their respective vendor's hardware. In contrast, Sun Microsystems's '''Solaris Operating System''' can run on multiple types of hardware, including x86 and Sparc servers, and PCs. Apple's '''Mac OS X''' is a hybrid kernel-based BSD variant derived from NeXTSTEP, Mach, and FreeBSD.

Unix-like systems run on a wide variety of machine architectures. They are used heavily for servers in business, as well as workstations in academic and engineering environments. Free Unix variants, such as GNU/Linux and BSD, are popular in these areas.

A subgroup of the Unix family is the ''Berkeley Software Distribution'' family, which includes ''FreeBSD'', ''NetBSD'', and ''OpenBSD''. These operating systems are most commonly found on webservers, although they can also function as a personal computer OS.

''Mac OS X'' is a line of partially proprietary graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc., the latest of which is pre-loaded on all currently shipping Macintosh computers. Mac OS X is the successor to the original Mac OS, which had been Apple's primary operating system since 1984. Unlike its predecessor, Mac OS X is a UNIX operating system built on technology that had been developed at NeXT through the second half of the 1980s and up until Apple purchased the company in early 1997.

''Linux'' (or GNU/Linux) is a Unix-like operating system that was developed without any actual Unix code, unlike BSD and its variants. Linux can be used on a wide range of devices from supercomputers to wristwatches. The Linux kernel is released under an open source license, so anyone can read and modify its code. Although estimates suggest that Linux is used only on 1.82% of all personal computers, it has been widely adopted for use in servers and embedded systems. The Linux kernel is used in some popular distributions, such as ''Red Hat'', ''Debian'', ''Ubuntu'', OpenSUSE and Google's Android.

The ''Google Chrome OS'' is an operating system based on the Linux kernel and designed by Google. Since Chrome OS targets computer users who spend most of their time on the Internet, it is mainly a web browser with no ability to run applications. It relies on Internet applications (or Web apps) used in the web browser to accomplish tasks such as word processing and media viewing, as well as online storage for storing most files.

===Microsoft Windows===
''Microsoft Windows'' is a family of proprietary operating systems designed by Microsoft Corporation and primarily targeted to Intel architecture based computers, with an estimated 88.9 percent total usage share on Web connected computers.

Currently, the most widely used version of the Windows family is Windows XP, released on October 25, 2001. The newest version is Windows 7 for workstations and Windows Server 2008 R2 for servers.

Microsoft Windows originated in 1985 as an application running on top of MS-DOS, which was the standard operating system shipped on most Intel architecture personal computers at the time. In 1995, Windows 95 was released, combining MS-DOS 7.0 with Windows on the same medium, removing the need of getting a separate MS-DOS license. Windows Me, released in 2000, was the latest version of Windows of the Windows 95 family. Later versions have all been based on the Windows NT kernel. Server editions of Windows are widely used. In recent years, Microsoft has expended significant capital in an effort to promote the use of Windows as a server operating environment. However, Windows' usage on servers is not as widespread as on personal computers, as Windows competes against Linux and BSD for server market share.

==Components==
The components of an operating system all exist in order to make the different parts of a computer work together. All software needs to go through the operating system in order to use any of the hardware, whether it be as simple as a mouse or keyboard or complex as an Internet connection.

[[Image:Kernel Layout.png|thumb|A kernel connects the application software to the hardware of a computer.]]
;Kernel
:With the aid of the firmware and device drivers, the kernel provides the most basic level of control over all of the computer's hardware devices. It manages memory access for programs in the [[Random Access Memory|RAM]], it determines which programs get access to which [[hardware]] resources, it sets up or resets the [[Central Processing Unit|CPU]]'s operating states for optimal operation at all times, and it organizes the data for long-term non-volatile storage with file systems on such media as [[Hard disk drive|hard disks]] and [[optical storage]], [[Magnetic tape data storage|tapes]], flash memory, etc.
;Program execution
:The operating system provides an interface between an application program and the computer hardware, so that an application program can interact with the hardware only by obeying rules and procedures programmed into the operating system. The operating system is also a set of services which simplify development and execution of application programs. Executing an application program involves the creation of a process by the operating system kernel which assigns memory space and other resources, establishes a priority for the process in multi-tasking systems, loads program binary code into memory, and initiates execution of the application program which then interacts with the user and with hardware devices.
;Interrupts
:Interrupts are central to operating systems, as they provide an efficient way for the operating system to interact with and react to its environment. Interrupt-based programming is directly supported by most modern CPUs. Interrupts provide a computer with a way of automatically saving local register contexts, and running specific code in response to events. Even very basic computers support hardware interrupts, and allow the programmer to specify code which may be run when that event takes place.
;Modes
:Modern CPUs support multiple modes of operation. CPUs with this capability use at least two modes: ''protected mode'' and ''supervisor mode''. The supervisor mode is used by the operating system's kernel for low level tasks that need unrestricted access to hardware, such as controlling how memory is written and erased, and communication with devices like graphics cards. Protected mode, in contrast, is used for almost everything else. Applications operate within protected mode, and can only use hardware by communicating with the kernel, which controls everything in supervisor mode. CPUs might have other modes similar to protected mode as well, such as the ''virtual modes'' in order to emulate older processor types.
;Memory management
:Among other things, a multiprogramming operating system must be responsible for managing all system memory which is currently in use by programs. This ensures that a program does not interfere with memory already used by another program. Since programs time share, each program must have independent access to memory.
;Multitasking
:Multitasking refers to the running of multiple independent computer programs on the same computer; giving the appearance that it is performing the tasks at the same time. Since most computers can do at most one or two things at one time, this is generally done via time-sharing, which means that each program uses a share of the computer's time to execute.
;Disk access and file systems
:Access to data stored on disks is a central feature of all operating systems. Computers store data on disks using ''files'', which are structured in specific ways in order to allow for faster access, higher reliability, and to make better use out of the drive's available space. The specific way in which files are stored on a disk is called a ''file system'', and enables files to have names and attributes. It also allows them to be stored in a hierarchy of directories or folders arranged in a ''directory'' tree.
;Device drivers
:A device driver is a specific type of computer software developed to allow interaction with hardware devices, through the specific computer bus or communications subsystem that the hardware is connected to, providing commands to and/or receiving data from the device, and to provide interfaces to the operating system and software applications. It is a specialized hardware-dependent computer program which is also operating system specific that enables another program, typically an operating system or applications software to interact transparently with the hardware device.
;Networking
:Currently most operating systems support a variety of networking protocols, hardware, and applications for using them. This means that computers running dissimilar operating systems can participate in a common network for sharing resources such as computing, files, printers, and scanners using either wired or wireless connections. Networks can essentially allow a computer's operating system to access the resources of a remote computer to support the same functions as it could if those resources were connected directly to the local computer. This includes everything from simple communication, to using networked file systems or even sharing another computer's graphics or sound hardware.
;User interface
:Every computer that is to be operated by an individual requires a user interface. The user interface is not actually a part of the operating system — it generally runs in a separate program usually referred to as a ''shell'', but is essential if human interaction is to be supported. The user interface requests services from the operating system that will acquire data from input hardware devices, such as a [[keyboard]] or [[mouse]], and requests operating system services to display prompts and status messages on output hardware devices, such as a [[Computer monitor|video monitor]] or [[Printers|printer]]. The two most common forms of a user interface have historically been the ''command-line interface'', where computer commands are typed out line-by-line, and the ''graphical user interface'', where a visual environment (most commonly with windows, buttons, icons and a mouse pointer) is present.

Software

Tombartal — Mon, 17 Oct 2011 18:32:44 GMT

Tombartal: Created page with '__NOTOC__ '''Computer software''', or just '''software''', is a collection of computer programs and related data that provide the instructions for telling a computer what to do a...'

__NOTOC__
'''Computer software''', or just '''software''', is a collection of computer programs and related data that provide the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. In other words software is a set of '''programs''', '''procedures''', '''algorithms''' and its '''documentation'''. Program software performs the function of the program it implements, either by directly providing instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software. The term was coined to contrast to the old term [[hardware]] (meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software is intangible, meaning it "cannot be touched". In computer science and software engineering, software is all information processed by computer system, programs and data.

The first theory about software was proposed by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay ''Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem (Decision problem)''. The term "software" was first used in print by John W. Tukey in 1958.

==Types of software==
Practical computer systems divide software systems into three major classes: system software, programming software and application software, although the distinction is arbitrary, and often blurred.

'''System software''' provides the basic functions for computer usage and helps run the computer hardware and system. It includes a combination of the following:
*Device drivers
*Operating systems
*Servers
*Utilities
*Window systems
System software is responsible for managing a variety of independent hardware components, so that they can work together harmoniously. System software includes [[operating systems]], which govern computing resources. The purpose of system software is to unburden the application software programmer from the often complex details of the particular computer being used, including such accessories as communications devices, [[printers]], device readers, [[Computer monitor|displays]] and [[keyboard]]s, and also to partition the computer's resources such as [[memory]] and [[Central Processing Unit||processor]] time in a safe and stable manner.

'''Programming software''' usually provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer programs, and software using different programming languages in a more convenient way. The tools include:
*Compilers
*Debuggers
*Interpreters
*Linkers
*Text editors
An Integrated development environment (IDE) is a single application that attempts to manage all these functions.

'''Application software''' is developed to aid in any task that benefits from computation. It is a broad category, and encompasses software of many kinds, including the internet browser being used to display this page. This category includes:
*Business software
*Computer-aided design
*[[Databases]]
*Decision making software
*Educational software
*[[ImageMaker|Image editing]]
*Industrial automation
*Mathematical software
*Medical software
*Molecular modeling software
*Quantum chemistry and solid state physics software
*Simulation software
*[[Spreadsheets]]
*Telecommunications ([[Information and Communication|Internet]] and related applications)
*Video editing software
*Video games
*[[Word processing]]

Input and output ports

Tombartal — Wed, 06 Jul 2011 17:10:17 GMT

Tombartal: Created page with 'Examples of computer connector sockets on various laptops In computer hardware, a '''port''' serves as an interface between the com...'

[[Image:Computer-connector-sockets.jpg|thumb|Examples of computer connector sockets on various laptops]]
In computer hardware, a '''port''' serves as an interface between the computer and other computers or peripheral devices. Physically, a port is a specialized outlet on a piece of equipment to which a plug or cable connects. Electronically, the several conductors making up the outlet provide a signal transfer between devices. The term "port" is derived from a Latin word "''porta''" (gate, entrance, door).

==Physical shape==

==Electrical signal transfer==

=Types of ports=

====Ethernet====

====Parallel====

====PS/2====

====Serial====

====USB====

====VGA====

====DVI====

====SCSI====

====Firewire (IEEE 1394 interface)====

====Thunderbolt====

Carputer

Tombartal — Wed, 06 Jul 2011 16:52:00 GMT

Tombartal:

'''Carputer''' is the predominant term used to describe a category of [[Handheld and portable computers|mobile computer]] designed or modified to specifically be installed and run in automobiles. Originally these were based on industrial personal computer technology, but as [[smartphone]]s and [[Personal digital assistant|PDAs]] have become more powerful, and have included useful technologies like GPS and Bluetooth, they have become the predominant base platform for developing carputers.

The recent popularity of carputers has caused the creation of more advanced units that use touch screen interfaces, integrate with vehicles via OBD-II link, and offer a variety of other add-ons like rear-view cameras and GPS. It is now possible to find assembled carputers complete with wireless capabilities and built-in microphones for sale on the internet.

=Autonomous vehicles=
[[Image:Hands-free_Driving.jpg|thumb|360px|left|''Stanley'', a robotic Volkswagen Passat parked at Stanford University.]]A '''[[w:Driverless car|driverless car]]''' is a vehicle equipped with an autopilot system, which is capable of driving from one point to another without input from a human operator. The proposed advantages include:
* transporting loads in dangerous zones such as battlefields or disaster-zones.
* reducing the costs and inconvenience of employing drivers (for example for public transportation or commercial vehicles).
* managing traffic flow to increase road capacity.
* relieving vehicle occupants from driving and navigating chores, so allowing them to concentrate on other tasks or to rest during their journeys.
* reducing directional steering and velocity errors and corrections implicit in manually controlled vehicles to avoid accidents, accurately align vehicles with platforms to facilitate disabled access and cargo loading and to reduce lane width and safety margins

Some proposed systems depend on infrastructure-based guidance systems (i.e. systems embedded in or near the road itself), while more advanced systems propose to simulate human perception and decision-making during steering of a car via advanced computer software linked to a range of sensors such as cameras, radar and GPS.

While common in futurist scenarios for a long time, driverless cars in an unstructured (i.e. non-prepared, constantly changing) free environment are still in their infancy as of 2011, and there are no vehicles in existence that are approved for use in environments where they would encounter normal human drivers - though much progress was made in the late 2000s.

Driverless passenger car development programs include the 800 million EU-funded [[w:EUREKA Prometheus Project|EUREKA Prometheus Project]] on autonomous vehicles, the 2getthere passenger vehicles from the Netherlands, the ARGO research project from Italy, the [[w:DARPA Grand Challenge|DARPA Grand Challenge]] from the USA, and the [[w:Google driverless car|Google driverless car project]].

E-book reader

Tombartal — Mon, 04 Jul 2011 17:28:08 GMT

Tombartal: Created page with 'An '''e-book reader''', also called an '''e-book device''' or '''e-reader''', is a portable electronic device that is designed primarily for t...'

An '''e-book reader''', also called an '''e-book device''' or '''e-reader''', is a [[Handheld and portable computers|portable electronic device]] that is designed primarily for the purpose of reading digital books and periodicals.

An e-book reader is similar in form to a [[Tablet|tablet computer]]. A tablet computer typically has a faster screen capable of higher refresh rates which makes them more suitable for interaction. The main advantages of e-book readers are better readability of their screens especially in bright sunlight and longer battery life. This is achieved by using electronic paper technology to display content to readers.

Any device that can display text on a screen can act as an e-book reader, but without the advantages of the e-paper technology.

Smartphone

Tombartal — Mon, 04 Jul 2011 17:21:41 GMT

Tombartal: Created page with 'A '''smartphone''' is a high-end mobile phone that offers advanced computing ability and connectivity, usually combining the functions of a personal digital assistant (PDA) a...'

A '''smartphone''' is a high-end mobile phone that offers advanced computing ability and connectivity, usually combining the functions of a [[personal digital assistant]] (PDA) and a mobile phone.

A smartphone runs a complete mobile operating system. Widespread examples are Apple iOS, Google Android, Microsoft Windows Phone 7, Nokia Symbian, Research In Motion BlackBerry OS, and embedded Linux distributions (e.g. Maemo). Such operating systems can be installed on many different phone models.

==History==
[[Image:IBM_SImon_in_charging_station.png|thumb|IBM Simon (1992) in charging station]] The first smartphone was the ''IBM Simon''; it was designed in 1992 and shown as a concept product that year at COMDEX, the computer industry trade show held in Las Vegas, Nevada. It was released to the public in 1993 and sold by BellSouth (AT&T).

Besides being a mobile phone, it also contained a calendar, address book, world clock, calculator, note pad, e-mail client, the ability to send and receive faxes, and games. It had no physical buttons, instead customers used a touchscreen to select telephone numbers with a finger or create facsimiles and memos with an optional [[stylus]].

By today's standards, the Simon would be a fairly low-end product, lacking a camera and the ability to install third-party applications. However, its feature set at the time was highly advanced.

The ''Nokia Communicator'' line was the first of Nokia's smartphones starting with the Nokia 9000, released in 1996. This distinctive palmtop computer style smartphone was the result of a collaborative effort by Hewlett-Packard and Nokia. The communicators are characterized by clamshell design, with a feature phone display and user interface on top of the phone, a physical QWERTY keyboard, and high-resolution display of at least 640x200 pixels.

In 1997 the term 'smartphone' was used for the first time when ''Ericsson'' unveiled the concept phone ''GS88'', the first device labelled as smartphone.

[[Image:Original_iPhone_docked.jpg|thumb|left|First-generation iPhone (2007)]] In 2007, Apple Inc. introduced its first ''iPhone''. It was initially costly, priced at $500 for the cheaper of two models on top of a two year contract. It was one of the first mobile phones to be mainly controlled through a touchscreen. It was the first mobile phone to use a multi-touch interface, and it featured a full-featured web browser.

In July 2008, Apple introduced its second generation iPhone with a lower list price and 3G support. Released with it, Apple also created the App Store with both free and paid applications. The App Store can deliver applications developed by third parties directly to the iPhone or iPod Touch over Wi-Fi or cellular network without using a PC to download.

With the introduction of the App Store, the iPhone gained one of the two key smartphone features that it lacked: the capability to install and execute native applications.

[[Image:T-Mobile_G1_launch_event_2.jpg|thumb|The first Android phone HTC Dream (2008)]] The ''Android'' operating system for smartphones was released in 2008. Android is an open-source platform backed by Google, along with major hardware and software developers (such as Intel, HTC, ARM, Motorola, Samsung and others). The first phone to use Android was the HTC Dream, branded for distribution by T-Mobile as the G1. The software suite included on the phone consists of integration with Google's proprietary applications, such as Maps, Calendar, and Gmail, and a full HTML web browser. Third-party apps are available via the Android Market (released October 2008).